PREHISTORY

From Flaked Glass to Iron and Bronze

We know of Sumatra's role in the evolution of modern humans. It's forested equatorial landscape has not preserved the same kinds of lake and river-laid deposits which have yielded so many early human fossils in the drier climatic zone of central and eastern Java. Early humans probably avoided the humid rainforests and instead occupied the fertile mountain valleys which run along Sumatra's mountainous spine. Perhaps one day their remains will be found, but so far the record is circumstantial.
-The earliest inhabitants
Sumatra, like Java, was joined by dry land to the Malay Peninsula for most of the past million years. Sea levels were generally lower, owing to the great volumes of water trapped in the Pleistocene glaciers. The western part of the Indonesian archipelago has only existed in its present form for the past 6,000 years and for brief intervals during the warmest interglacial periods; the previous interglacial occurred some 120,000 years ago.
         Humans probably first entered Sumatra one million years ago across the land bridges of the Pleistocene era (1.6 million to thousand years ago). Archaeological evidence of  human activity in Sumatra dates back only 10,000 years. Flake tools of a black volcanic glass called obsidian have been excavated from layers of this age in the cave of Tianko Panjang near Lake Kerinci.
         But the most famous remains of the early, pre-agricultural period are gigantic middens of discarded marine shells, animal bones and stone tools once found (most are now destroyed) along the east coast plain between Lhokseumawe and Medan. Little is known of the people who made these mounds, but their  skulls suggest that they were of Australomelanesian (similar to the native inhabitants of  Australia and inland New Guine) instead of Mongoloid (East Asian) appearance. They hunted deer, pig, elephant, honey bear and rhinoceros and made their stone tools by flaking one side of a large oval river pebble. Their cultural re-mains are called "Hoabinhian." Similar materials dating back 4,000-13,000 years, but without such large shell middens, also occur in the Malay Peninsula, Thailand and vietnam.
-Austronesian agriculturalists
All the peoples of Sumatra speak Austronesian Lnguages. They are closely related biologically-all belonging to the "Southern Mongoloid" population which now occupies most of Southeast Asia. The Austronesian language family includes almost all indigenous languages of island Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands beyond the Solomons. Starting about 4,000 BC, Austronesian-speaking people began to spread southwards from Taiwan, reaching Sumatra around 2,500BC.
         Most Sumatrans speak dialects of the Malay language, or very closely related languages such as Minangkabau. Languages outside this Malayic group include Gayo and Batak, and the languages spoken in the islands off Sumatra's west coast-Simeulue, Nias, Mentawai and Enggano.
         Little archaeological research has been carried out in Sumatra-far too little to allow any useful statements to be made about the prehistoric relationships among these peoples. However, two important observations can be made. First, there is evidence from lakes and swamps in the highlands around Mt. Kerinci and Lake Toba that forest clearance, probably for agriculture, was underway at least 4,000 years ago-perhaps by as much as 7,000 years ago. The evidence comes from palynology: the study of pollens preserved in cores drilled from the ground. It is possible that this forest clearance reflects the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Sumatra, unless there were other (Austroasiatic-speaking?) agricultural peoples living there before them. This is still one of the big unknowns of the Sumatra past.
         The second observation is that languages outside the Malayic group-Gayo and Batak, Simeulue, Nias, Mentawai and Enggano-probably represent localized descent from the initial Austronesian languages of southern Vietnam-may be an exception. But the Malayic languages, which also occur in Peninsular Malaysia and coastal Borneo, seem to reflect a later period of cultural and linguistic expansion, perhaps due to the rise of Srivijaya in the late 7th century. This Buddhist kingdom was focused around the area which is now Palembang in South Sumatra. The Malayic languages, therefore, may have replaced older Austronesian languages.
         Malay is spoken along the entire eastern lowlands of the island south of Medan-even by the nomadic Kubu peoples. The Kubu foragers, who are of Southern Mongoloid origin, speak a language so closely related to their agricultural neighbors that it is possible that sometime in the recent past their ances tors turned from agriculture to foraging-a reverse of the most commonly-assumed direction of cultural development.
-The age of bronze and iron
Like Java, Sumatra has no detailed pre-Bronze Age archaeological record. Our picture for the island really only comes into focus from about 2,000 years ago, when knowledge of bronze casting and iron smelting arrived with the massive bronze drums of Vietnamese ("Dongson") origin.
         These drums, with their elaborate surface decorations of boats, raised-floor houses, animals, birds and human warriors have been found at several places in Sumatra-some of these artifacts have been found near Lake Kerinci, in Lampung, in South Sumatra, and near Bengkulu.
         The famous Batugajah stone in the Pasemah Highlands of South Sumatra shows a Dongson drum being carried on the back of a man who is apparently subduing an elephant. The BatuGajah stone was originally located near Pagaralam in West Sumatra, but is now kept in the museum in Palembang. This carved boulder is one of the fascinating complex of carved megalithic monuments found in the fields around Pagaralam. The bas-relief carvings on these stone monuments show men riding elephants or buffaloes, helmeted human heads, humans wrestling with snakes. There are also many stone mortars, which may have had ritual uses.
          Massive underground tombs constructed of large slabs of rock have produced Metal Age artifacts such as glass beads and items made of bronze, iron, and even sometimes gold. Some were painted inside in red, black and white with schematic motifs of horned buffaloes, felines, monkey-like figures and humans. In one case two humans (or possibly a human and a giant cat) are shown holding a Dongson drum. Examples of these grave paintings can be seen in the National Museum in Jakarta. These megalithic carvings and slab stone graves were probably both made during the earlier part of the first millennium AD.

BIRDS

Rare, Colorful Denizens of the Forest

Whit some 600 species, Sumatra is second only to Irian Jaya in the sheer variety of it's bird life. Fully three quarters of these birds are resident, though only 17 are unique. Sadly, many species are endangered by clearing of land for settlement, logging and hunting, and some are now sighted only rarely.
-Calls of the wild
Majestic hornbills attract your attention with their noisy wing beats and loud calls. Particularly spectacular is the Rhinoceros Hornbill Buceros rhinoceros. The male is 1.2 m long, with a huge reddish, up-turned casque and loud honking call. The call of the Long-tailed Helmeted Hornbill Rhinoplax vigil consists of a long series of "hoop" notes gradually quickening in tempo, then rapidly building to a crescendo, climaxing in a cackling laugh.
        Another common call of the forest is the loud "ku-ow" of the great Argus Pheasant Argusianus argus. When its decorative wing and tail plumes are fully developed, the male pheasant reaches a length of nearly 2 m, like so many secretive forest birds, you must be very fortunate to see it in the wild.
        The colorful kingfishers are mostly inconspicuous forest dwellers, but the White throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis lives in open country.  This bird was first spotted in 1921 near Medan, but has subsequently spread throughout the island. Along swamps and rivers, watch out for the huge Stork billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis-with its loud, wailing cries.
-Mixed dinner parties
If you are lucky enough to chance upon a fruiting  fig tree, you will probably see a host of pigeons, hornbills and barbets-all so intent on gorging themselves that they ignore the observer standing below in a a shower of discarded fruit debris. Occasionally shattering the cathedral stillness of the noon-time forest, a flock of birds will sweep down upon you, excitedly searching for food. This "feeding party" ranges from woodpeckers, jays and trogons to drongos, bulbuls and babblers. Such parties are believed to be a spontaneous response to food shortages in the dry season. The birds' frenzied activity drives insects from every nook and cranny, to be gobbled up greedily. After just a few minutes, the flock moves on, leaving the equally frenzied birdwatcher frantically trying to remember each species as the last bird departs.
-Montane birds
Hill forest are the best birdwatching regions for the casual visitor. Many are accessible, the climate is comfortable, and the birds are less secretive. Here you will hear the rapid , monotonous, three-note call of the Black-browed Barbet Megalaima oorti and the curious buzzing note of the Fire-tufted Barbet Psilopogon pyrolophus. The lucky birdwatcher will also find the distinctive Yellow-naped Woodpeckers Picus flavinuchus and Picus chlorolophus, or a party of colorful but secretive Green Magpies Cissa chinensis.
         Prominent calls  are those of the large Cuckoo-dove  Macropygia unchall, the Mountain Imperial Pigeon Ducula badia, and the White-crested Laughing Thrush Garrulax leucolophus, with its distinctive hopping  gait and beautiful call, which builds to a maniacal climax. The Bronze-tailed Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron chalcurum and the Salvadori's Pheasant Lophura inornata are endemic to the mountains of Sumatra. The latter was not seen for several decades, but has been sighted recently on Mt. Kerinci in West Sumatra.
-Lowland forest
The most popular lowland area for birdwatching in Sumatra is Way Kambas Reserve in Lampung, easily accessible on a weekend trip from Jakarta. A majority of lowland forest species have been recorded here, including the hornbills. Further up the east coast are extensive expanses of swamp forest, but the remaining dryland forests here are greatly in demand for agriculture, and it is increasingly difficult to find good birdwatching localities within easy acces of the main roads. It is essential to reach the forest soon after dawn in order to catch the peak activity.
         In Way Kambas, the birdwatcher may happen upon a party of Crested Fireback Pheasants Lophura ignita, or see the huge Whitebellied woodpecker Dryocopus javensis. The Black-and-yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus orchromalus is a common songster, with its trilled notes on one pitch that steadily gather speed to a cicada-like buzz.
         The best songster of the lowland forest is undoubtedly the long-tailed, scarlet, black and white Shama Copsychus malabaricus, a secretive robin of the deep forest. The Eared Nightjar Eurostopodus temminckii is also a favorite, with its "tok-tedau" calls uttered in flight just above the canopy of trees precisely at dusk and dawn.
          The lowland forests have the greatest variety, but even the brightly colored birds are not found easily. A dedicated birdwatcher requires not only  skill and patience but also a considerable degree of luck to sight some of the birds mentioned.
-Wetlands
The remote and muddy east coast is a major wintering and transit zone for over 100,000 palaearctic waders from some 25 species. The 4,000 Asian Dowitchers Limnodromus semipalmatus sighted hee are most exciting, as they represent about half of the world's population of this rare bird.
          The Asian Wetlands Bureau is anxiously trying to locate the breeding colonies of Sumatra's 3,000 Milky Storks Ibis cinereus, in order to protect this endangered species. The wetlands are also home to large numbers of egrets and herons, Lesser Adjutant  Storks Leptoptilos javanicus, Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus, and a tiny relict population of spot-billed Pelicans Pelecanus philippensis.
           Two wetland birds are high on the endangered list. Sumatra and Kalimantan are home to most of the world population of Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi-a forest bird of the swamps and rivers. Sumatra is also one of the main strongholds of the forest-dwelling White-winged Wood Duck, whose range formerly extended from Northeast India south to West Java. It is now confined to scattered relict populations. One such population lives in southeast Sumatra, but the wetlands here now possess only a fraction of their former wealth due to human population pressures.

WILDLIFE

Beasts of the Tropical Jungle

Sumatra's wildlife is the stuff of adventure books. Huge elephants, large skulking cats and elusive rhinos inhabit dense tropical forests amidst a tangle of enormous trees, twisting lianas, and weird and wonderful flowers. Massive human-like apes and beautiful shimmering birds-glimpsed but for a moment-make Sumatra a truly exciting place for naturalists and natur-lovers.
       One should not expect the drive-up-and-snap ecotourism of East Africa., however. Good sightings of animal are the result of patience and a considerable investment of time. The ideal way to go about it is to wander slowly through the forest, or find a suitable spot and sit quietly and wait-or rise before dawn and go into the forest with a flashlight.
       Sumatra's remarkable biological wealth is partly due to the island's great size and diversity of habitats, and partly to its periodic connections with the Southeast Asian mainland during the past few hundred thousand years. The island has no fewer than 196 different species of mammals-nearly three times the number in Great Britain-20 of which are found nowhere else. These include several species of bats, five primates, the sumatran rabbit, various squirrels and the elegant Sumatran weasel.
        The wide rivers of the east coast are home to dozens of large fish, including a giant cat fish that grows to 2 meters in length, and the world's most expensive aquarium fish-the golden arowana or dragon fish. Many types of fishes may be seen in the marketplaces in the early morning. Some air-breathing. "walking" species are kept damp and sold alive.
        Smaller rivers yield many more species of aquarium fish-heavily striped tiger barbs, the pink-and-brown Kuhl's loach, the orange-and-black clown loach, silver "sharks," halfbeaks, gouramis and a variety of rasbora. The guppy was introduced to the region in 1929 by an aquarist in Bandung, West Java, when he accidentally let some escape . Today the guppy is found in ditches and rice fields in most rural areas.

-Regional variation

Excavations on java, where conditions for fossil preservation are better than on Sumatra, have revealed that about 70,000 years ago the Indonesia archipelago was home to many large mammals that are now extinct. Eight species of elephant, a giant pangolin, several pigs, wild dogs, saber-toothed cats, hyenas and a hippopotamus have all left their remains in the fossil record.

         Several other species have disappeared more recently-the last confirmed shooting of a Javan rhinoceros on Sumatra was in 1982. The disappearance of the leopard, which still survives in Peninsular Malaysia and Java, is more of a mystery, at it is well adapted for mountains, forests or plains-with their abundance of monkey and deer.

         Sumatra's wildlife is not uniformly distributed throughout its regions. The islands of Simeulue and Enggano-respectively at the top and bottom of the island chain west of Sumatra-have very impoverished wildlife. It is possible that neither has ever been connected to the mainland. Neither island has any species of squirrel (the main island has 24), but Simeulue has distinctive forms of the long-tailed macaque and forest pig, 3 endemic snakes and 20 endemic subspecies of birds.

          The massive explosion of Lake Toba in North Sumatra (see "Geography") may have had and important influence on the distribution of animals in Sumatra, because it spread a broad barrier of dry volcanic material across thousands of square kilometers, forming a kind of barrier. There are  clear differences between the mammals found to the north and south of this area. To the north live white-handed gibbons, Thomas' leaf-monkeys, orangutans, the Sumatran wren babbler, Schneider's pitta and the bronze-tailed peacock pheasant. to the south live the agile gibbon, banded leaf-monkey, tarsier, tapir and blue masked leafbird.

-A forgotten eden

More than half a million years have passed since the Mentawai Islands, which lie 100 km off the coast of West Sumatra, were connected with the main island of Sumatra, This long isolation has allowed the evolution of endemic species and the survival of primitive (or relict) species in this region.

           Eighty percent of the Mentawai's mammals are endemic. These special Mentawai animals include three species of monkey and a gibbon. Two of the monkeys-the joja and the simakobu-are unique among monkeys in the Old World in thet they live (as the gibbons do) in small family units comprising the mother, father and offsprings.

            The people of these islands have a story which tells how humans came into being. At a conference of the bilou gibbons, it was agreed that their trees were becoming too crowded. So half the gibbons left the trees to live on the ground, and in time became people. This kind of story represents the closeness felt by the traditional people for their land and its animal inhabitants.

-'Men-of-the-forest'

There is an awesomeness and splendor about the primary forest that is difficult to describe in words. The Sumatran forests are disappearing fast, and a walk in one of them should be one every traveler's itinerary.

            The easiest forest to reach for the casual visitor is the one at Bukit Lawang on the edge of the Gunung Leuser National Park in North Sumatra, a two-hour ride from Medan. Here captured orangutans (literally meaning "men-of-the-forest") are trained to return to the wild, and it is possible to see these splendid, tousled, russet-colored beasts being educated to adopt a forest lifestyle, though occasionally the forest area near the rehabilitation station is closed to visitors during the time that feeding is stopped to encourage the young animals to find their own food.

            other forest areas are quite easy to reach from Bengkulu, Banda Aceh, Blangkejeren, Kabanjahe, Sidikalang, Pematangsiantar, Bukittinggi, Tebing Tinggi and Padang. the basic principle in any of these places is simply to head for the hills.

-Mountains and parks

As one climbs a Sumatran mountain, the environment becomes cooler and more exposed. The trees and their leaves become smaller, the boughs and branches become covered in moss. Colorful rhododendrons and other familiar temperate zone plants grace the upper slopes. These plants are found only at the higher elevations, and some bird and other animal species are found only here too.

            More adventurous and independent travelers could explore the mountains of Gunung Leuser National Park. Allow at least four days to climb Mt. Kemiri, one of the more accessible peaks, and plan your ascent well. Surprisingly, you will need a number of helpers, and do not forget that temperatures at the peak are only a degree or two above freezing at night.

            The mountains are the place where you are most likely to see signs of rhinos and tigers. A world of warning-in this tiger country do not squat down at night to perform your ablutions; women are particularly vulnerable to attacks at night.

            The clearance of large areas of lowland forest in recent years has led to conflicts between people and large forest animals such as pigs, long-tailed macaques, bears and elephants. Elephants, which cause the most local damage, have been confined to smaller and smaller areas of the forest as agricultural development and new roads have advanced. These roads often cross traditional elephant migration routes to and from areas with mineral-rich soils. Some populations of elephants are now living at higher densities in Sumatra than anywhere else in the world.

            Elephants may be seen in spectacular concentrations in the Way Kambas National Park in Lampung province, and in the Air Sugihan Reserve. The reason for this is that elephant drives have been conducted-using helicopters blaring loud rock music, guns firing blank ammunition, and hordes of willing villagers-to persuade the elephants to move from agricultural areas into the reserves. these reserves consists largely of secondary forest, scrub and grasslands which elephants prefer, because their food plants are more abundant there.

            The plight of the elephants symbolizes the plight facing much of Sumatra's wildlife-how to survive when even the forest areas set aside for conservation area facing constant attrition? An attempted solution to the elephant's plight is to take young elephants into "training schools" and to teach them to be economically productive. The oldest of the schools is in the Way Kambas National Park.

-Stinking giants

Among the records Sumatra can boast of is the possession of the largest and the tallest flowers in the world. The largest is the peculiar rafflesia, and its size is by no means its only unique feature. It is in fact a parasitic plant that has no leaves, no stem and no roots. It grows on the stump and roots of a particular climbing vine, and apart from the flower it consists only of a few strands of tissue inside the vine. Flower buds, looking like small red cabbages, emerge on the stem but develop slowly-a bud 10 cm in diameter will take about 5 months to open.

            When the flower does eventually open there is a powerful smell of rotting meat. Singularly unpleasant to humans, the smell attracts flies and beetles that pollinate the flowers. Since the male and the female flowers may grow some distance apart and remain open for only a week, the odds are clearly stacked against successful pollination. After flowering they decompose and the very small, ripe fruit has to accidentally get caught in the feet of small forest animals so that some of the seeds may happen to be dropped on a vine stem where they can grow. Again, the odds are not exactly in its favor!

            The small reserve of Batang Palupuh just outside Bukittinggi in West Sumatra is one of the best places to see this plant. While it is a seasonal plant, it is probably worth visiting at anytime of year-you may never get a chance to see even a Rafflesia bud again!

             Another enormous flower with an impressive name is Amorphophallus titanum, a type of giant arum lily, of which generally only the leaves are seen. These leaves feed an underground tuber that, when large enough, produces a flower stalk as tall as a man. As with all other lilies, the blossoms are small and packed together on a central spathe.

              Like the Rafflesia, the flowers smell of rotting meat and are pollinated by beetles and flies. You have to be lucky to see this plant in full flower, but chances are best in the forests around Mt. Kerinci. The local name is bunga bangkai, "corpse flower"-a name that is applied to the Raflesia arnoldi as well on account of the overpowering stench.

-And what of tomorrow?

In the forests of Sumatra, the echoing sounds of timber being chopped down at an amazing speed are now as common as the "ku-ow" calls of the Argus Pheasant or the drumming of the coucal. The shouts of timbermen are immediately followed by the rustling of a thousand leaves tearing through the forest canopy, and then the ground shudders as the trunk of a centuries-old tree slams to the ground, while the animals shriek with fear. Minor forest products such as rattan, tree gums, etc., are taken away with scant regard to replanting or to future harvests. Tigers, Sumatran rhinos and other game are still shot to provide pleasure for a few hunters, and to appease local villagers. The remaining patches of forest are dwindling fast.

              So get out there and explore-climb the mountains, tramp the hills, and enjoy what remains. Take care not to add to the damage, and encourage others to do the same. Sumatra's wildlife is grand and very special, even though time, a certain determination, and a little bit of luck are required to see it. If you are patient and persistent, the rewards are great. But even if all that you can see is the blurred shapes of monkeys crashing through the canopy above you, you will have witnessed at least something of Sumatra's fast-disappearing wildlife.

GEOGRAPHY

A Vast Island of Dramatic Contrasts

Sumatra is the fourth largest island in the world after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo, with a land area of some 473,481 sq km-roughly the size of California or Spain. It is an island of enormous regional diversity, that for administrative purposes has been divided into eight large provinces. To some extent, these divisions have been made along ethnic, and not geographic lines. The provinces of Aceh and Lampung at Sumatra's northern and southern tips, for example, are home to the Acehnese and Lampung peoples, while North and West Sumatra are the Batak and Minangkabau homelands, respectively. Other provincial boundaries, however, have been determined more by the island's lofty central mountain range and the large river systems flowing eastward from it. Sumatra's largest province is South Sumatra, which encompasses a major slice of territory on the east coast and the large islands of Bangka and Belitung.

-migrating continents

Contrary to earlier beliefs, recent geological research has demonstrated that Sumatra once formed part of the great southern continent called Gondwanaland, and not part of Asia. About 160 million years ago it broke away and began to migrate northwards-eventually lodging, with Malaya, Thailand and Burma, againts what is now Indochina.

         About 40 million years later, India started its own northward journey, crashing slowly but powerfully into Tibet some 80 million years later. The dense oceanic plate on top of which India rested then nudged eastward againts the relatively light and rigid Sunda Plate. This caused massive buckling, faulting and shearing-resulting in the formation of a series of small islands to the west of Sumatra, as well as of Sumatra's central Barisan Range and the valleys in between.

         Today, part of the Indian Ocean plate continues to slide below the west of Sumatra, causing frequent but minor earthquakes, eruptions and landslides. The strees and shearing has been relived by a long rift valley stretching from Semangko Bay at the island's southern tip, north through Lake Kerinci, Bukittinggi's Ngarai Sianok Canyon.

         All along its length, the rift has been filled in by some 65 volcanic peaks, several of which are still active. The fault countinues southward into the straits between Sumatra and Java, where it has created the most infamous of Indonesia's many volcanoes-the mighty Krakatau.

-parallel slices

The physical geography of Sumatra is best considered as a series of parallel longitudinal slices running northwest to southeast along the main axis of the island. In the extreme west is a sparsely inhabited chain of island-from Simeulue in the north to Enggano in the south-that is separated from Sumatra by of 2,000 meters.

          The western fringe of Sumatra itself is a narrow but complex coastal strip, alternating between fertile alluvial soils where rice is grown, and inhospitable swamps that are gradually being drained for agriculture. Rugged foothills rise steeply from this coastal fringe to the mighty Barisan Mountains-several of which tower above 3,000meters. The highest non-volcanic peaks (about 3,400 meters) lie within The Gunung Leuser National Parks in the northern part of the island. Sumatra's highest volcano is Mt. Kerinci-at 3,800 meters, the highest Indonesia mountain outside of Irian Jaya.

           Also found along this central axis is dramatic Lake Tujuh-a spectacular crater lake, 5 sq km in area, perched at an altitude of 2,000 meters atop Mt. Tujuh. It is best seen from the southern slopes of adjacent Mt. Kerinci, but can also found be reached directly from the town of Sungaipenuh. Impressive mountains are also found in the limestone areas around Bukittinggi and Payakumbuh in West Sumatra, and in the the Lhoknga area of Aceh. These are not particularly high, but the unusual karst formations with steep sides, often studded with caves, are very interesting.

           East of the Barisan Range lie irregular foothills and broad, dry lowlands which have seen rapid development in this century as plantations and as urban and agricultural centers. These lowlands are now also the focus of industrial development based on food processing and fossil fuels.

           As you approach the coast, particularly in the central and southern regions, the dry lands turns to various types of swamps-the largest extent of swamplands in indonesia outside of Irian Jaya. These swamps are crisscrossed by large, meandering rivers. Where the peat is not too thick, the land has been cleared for rice cultivation; where it is thicker, pineapples and coconuts grow. Where the peat is really thick-and it can reach an incredible 22 meters in parts of Riau-agricultural crops cannot be grown. Logging continues, however, and land drainage in other areas threatens to eliminate many of these magnificent raised swamps.

           Further east, off the central and southern coasts, are the low-lying eastern island at the southern and of the Malacca Strait. Here, extensive areas are mined for bauxite and tin, but Batam Island is also being developed now as a leisure, business and industrial alternative to Singapore-with everything from industrial estates to luxury beach resorts.

           Far out in the South China Sea about 500 km from the mainland are the Natuna Islands. These have little agricultural potential but are important strategically, as well as possessing important fishing grounds and rich reserves of oil and natural gas.

-Riches of the earth

Sumatra is extremely rich in fossil fuels-oil, gas and coal. Oil is found mainly in the east, from Riau to South Sumatra, both on land and offshore. New technologies had to be developed to tap this wealth, especially to facilitate drilling in the thick peat  deposits of coastal Riau. Roads there  are built on top of floating plastic carpets, and derricks perch atop tall piles reaching down to the bedrock below. Almost all of the oil from this central basin is pumped to the port of Dumai on the east coast. In southeast Aceh is the enormous Arun gas field , which ranks as one of the world's most productive. In South Sumatra, at Muaraenim, is a very large opent-cast coal mine. The coal is taken from here by rail south to Teluk Betung and thence to java.

           Small amounts of gold are mined, though the important metals are aluminum (bauxite) and tin. Bauxite is mined on Bintan, one of the Riau Island, then shipped to Japan for processing into alumina, then back to Sumatra again, where it is smelted into aluminum at the Inalum plant on the coast of North Sumatra.

-Sumatra's 'big bang'

Huge Lake Toba in North Sumatra is Southeast Asia's largest lake, covering 1,146 sq km, and so far defying efforts to measure its depth-though it is known to be deeper than 450 m. It occupies the caldera of a massive volcano which exploded some 100,000 years ago in the most powerful volcanic eruption ever known. Early man was probably living in Sumatra at the time, and the scale of devastation caused by the explosion is hard for us to imagine-equivalent to hundreds of hydrogen bombs detonating simultaneously.

           Shortly before the eruption, a giant boil of a mountain grew above the increasing quantities of molten material below. When the solid ground finally gave way, a searingly hot plume of ash was thrown into the sky-its remains can be traced today over an area of 20-30,000 sq km. Around the volcano the ash settled in a layer more than 600 m thick. This eruption set the world record for the quantity of material ejected-some 1,500-2,000 cubic km, compared with just 0,6 cubic km for the much-publicised eruptionof Mt. St. Helens in Washington State, USA. Because of the massive quantity of ejecta, the empty cone soon collapsed in on itself to form the world's largest caldera. This became an ancient lake, which was itself destroyed about 30,000 years ago when a second, much smaller eruption occurred. The island of Samosir in the center of the lake, and the lake's eastern shore-the main tourist centers today-are all that remain of the shattered cone.

           The first Europeans to see Lake Toba were a pair of British missionaries, Messrs Burton and Ward, who traveled here in 1824. They were told that the lake level rose and fell like the sea. Although much of the area was already deforested and under rice cultivation, one area on the eastern shore was still covered with jungle. At the time, the lake's outlet was unknown, but eventually it became clear that the Asahan River flowed out through a "spirit-filled" forest at what is now Porsea on the southeastern shore.

           One reason for the forest's mystique may have been the impressive 100-meter Sigura-gura waterfall, which races through a narrow gorge-now rendered somewhat less dramatic by the presence of a hydroelectric dam. A short distance downstream is the 150-meter Sampuran Harimau waterfall which cascades into a large natural amphitheater near Tangga. Tumbling into this spectacular gorge is Sumatra's highest waterfall, at a point where the small Ponot River drops 280 meters from the mountains above and joins up with the Asahan River below. Although the falls are now used for hydroelectric power to supply the massive Inalum plant, the natural beauty of the area has not been lost. On a clear day these falls can be seen from the windows of jets plying the Medan-Jakarta route.

           The climate  of Sumatra has changed dramatically over the past million years. During the ice ages, glaciers covered the higher peaks  in the north, in what is now Gunung Leuser National park. The largest glacier on Mt. Leuser covered some 100 sq km.

            Sea levels have also been as much as 50 meters higher and 180 meters lower than they are at present. As a result, the low lying eastern swamps and plains have been inundated and exposed several times. At times of low sea levels, land bridges connected Sumatra with Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Java, and the estuaries of large rivers such as the Musi, the Kampar and the Indragiri were situated some 700 km farther east from the present-day coastline, near what are now the Natuna Islands.

-Fierce tropical storms

The western parts of Sumatra are by far the wettest; few areas here receive less than 4,000 mm of rain per annum, quite evenly distributed throughout the year. The wettest spots are the hills behind Padang, which receive 5,000 mm, and the northern Bengkulu mountains, which are drenched with more than 6,000 mm (about 10 times the rainfall of London!). The driest places are on the east coast and in the central rift valley, but even most of these receive more than 2,000 mm.

            Although the difference between seasons is not very distinct, dry periods often occur in the early part of the year and in June and July. During these periods, wild fires occur, often started by farmers clearing patches of land. The problem is growing worse because the changing world climate is prolonging the dry seasons. Logging has also opened up the moist forests, allowing forested areas to dry out-as have drainage schemes on the east coast, which dry out the peat deposits, causing them to burn out of control. It is not unusual for air traffic approaching Singapore to be re-routed because of the smoke from fires in southern Sumatra.

             While there is considerable local variability, winds in Sumatra generally blow from the north between December and March, and from the south between May and September. Many of the seasonal winds are particularly fierce, and have been given names by the local residents. A stormy wind that occurs in the region of Lake Tawar, in Aceh, is given the name Angin Depok-after the depik fish that is easily caught in the lake around this time. There are also two warm, dry winds-the Angin Bohorok which flows eastwards from the mountains behind Bohorok (in North Sumatra) and the the Angin Padang Lawas which blows east of Padang Sidempuan (in West Sumatra)-which often damage crops and make agriculture in some regions almost impossible because the soils become so dry.

Island of Adventure

       Sumatra, fabled "Land of Gold" of the ancients, is unlike any other tropical on earth. It is neither the largest landmass in the Indonesian archipelago (Irian Jaya and Kalimantan are larger), nor the most populous (Java has three times as many people), but by most accounts it is the most varied and interesting island to visit. Sumatra indeed has something for everyone-lush rainforests, exotic flora and fauna, cascading rivers, sparkling crater lakes, shimmering white sand beaches and an incredibly diverse array of traditional ethnic groups who inhabit some of the most spectacular volcanic landscapes in the world.
       Straddling vital waterways at the western end of an immense island chain, Sumatra is a kind of anchor for the rest of the archipelago.  It is truly continental in scope: vast lowland rainforests and coastal wetlands are cut by a network of broad, silt-laden rivers that snake across the island for up to 800 km before emptying into the South China Sea. Unlike all the other islands of a similar scale, however, Sumatra is also volcanic-its lofty range of western peaks forming alongitudinal "spine" dotted with lakes and fertile upland valleys.
       The island is extremely rich in natural re sources. Its coal, tin, bauxite, oil, gold, natural gas, timber, rubber, tea, palm oil, cacao and coffee together account for over half of Indonesia's export income, while its long coastline is dotted with harbors giving acces to seas teeming with tropical marine life.
       As a result, Sumatra has played a major role in Indonesia history. The first large kingdom in these islands-the Buddhist state of Srivijaya-had its capital on the Musi River near what is now Palembang, and from here controlled a massive volume of trade passing through the Malacca and Sunda straits for over 300 years-conquering all other ports around the coasts and maintaining direct links with harbors in faraway India and China.
       Indian civilzation, which was to have such a far-reaching cultural impact in the region, entered Indonesia through Sumatera ports in the first millenium Ad. In the second millenium the same story was repeated-as Islam arrived from the west along the trans-oceanic trade routes, established a foothold in the ports of northeastern Sumatra, and spread from here to the neighboring islands.
       Sumatra was of course inhabited long before the arrival of these foreign priests and traders. Well over a dozen major ethnic groups live on the island, speaking more than 25 different languages and hundreds of dialects. Sumatra today supports 40 million people-over 20 percent of Indonesia's huge population-with a size and density similar to that of California, though far less urbanized.
       Found here are some of Indonesia's most dynamic peoples. The Acehnese of the north, for example, are fervent Muslims renowned for their fierce resistance to Ducth rule. The Minangkabau of West Sumatra have migrated throughout Indonesia and today form the economic and intellectual elite in many areas. Sumatra's largest group, the Malays, were the great seafaring traders of Asia in pre-modern times, and their tongue forms the basis for the national languages of Indonesia and Malaysia. Last but not least, the Bataks of the northern highlands around Lake Toba are the nation's most resourceful and flamboyant group.
       As a travel destination, Sumatra thus has few peers. Its natural habitats possess an unparalleled variety of wildlife-from elephants and rhinos to the world's largest flower (the foul-smelling rafflesia) and the most expensive aquarium fish (the golden arowana or "dragon fish")-while the island's traditional peoples are as fascinating as they are warm and hospitable. In short, Sumatra combines most of the incomparable attractions of the Indonesian island all rolled into one!